Extended Devices
These 10 devices work at the level of structure and perspective — how much the reader knows, and when, and what a story’s shape itself communicates.
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Dramatic irony is easy to misuse — it specifically means the AUDIENCE knows something a character does not, not just any surprising twist.
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Swap question and answerDramatic irony
When the audience knows something important that a character does not.
The audience hears Claudius and Laertes plot the poisoned foil and cup, while Hamlet agrees to the fencing match unaware.
Situational irony
When the outcome of a situation is the opposite of what was expected.
Claudius and Laertes’ own poison plot backfiring on them is situational irony.
Verbal irony
Saying the opposite of what is actually meant.
Mark Antony’s repeated "Brutus is an honourable man" in Julius Caesar means the opposite of what it says.
Motif
A recurring image, idea, or structural element throughout a work.
Disguise and recognition recur as a motif throughout The Odyssey.
Allegory
A story in which characters and events consistently represent a deeper, often moral or political, meaning.
A story where every character stands for a specific vice or virtue is an allegory.
In medias res
Beginning a story in the middle of the action, rather than at the true chronological start.
The Odyssey begins years into Odysseus’ journey, not at the fall of Troy.
Frame narrative
A story told within the structure of another, outer story.
Odysseus recounting his own adventures to King Alcinous is a frame narrative within the poem.
Soliloquy
A speech in which a character, usually alone on stage, reveals their inner thoughts to the audience.
Hamlet’s "To be, or not to be" is among the most famous soliloquies in English drama.
Foil
A character whose traits contrast with another character, highlighting the second character’s qualities.
Laertes’ decisiveness makes him a foil for Hamlet’s hesitation.
Tragic flaw (hamartia)
An error of judgment or character flaw that leads to a tragic hero’s downfall.
Hamlet’s indecision is often read as his tragic flaw, a reading disputed because he also acts impulsively.
What to learn next
Next: Level 3, "Advanced Devices" — the terms that come up in the closest literary analysis.
Continue to Level 3: Advanced Devices →